Lange Mikrobiyoloji 8 Baski !LINK!
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lANGE MICROBIOLOGY 8th Edition: A Comprehensive Review of Microbial Life
Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. These organisms play vital roles in the environment, health, industry, and biotechnology. Understanding their structure, function, diversity, and interactions is essential for many fields of science and medicine.
lANGE MICROBIOLOGY 8th Edition is a textbook that covers the basic and clinical aspects of microbiology in a clear, concise, and engaging manner. It is written by a team of experts who have extensive experience in teaching and research. The book features:
More than 800 full-color illustrations and photographs that help visualize the concepts and details of microbial life.
Clinical cases that demonstrate the relevance and application of microbiology to human health and disease.
Review questions and summaries that reinforce the key points and test the comprehension of each chapter.
Online resources that include animations, videos, flashcards, quizzes, and more.
lANGE MICROBIOLOGY 8th Edition is an ideal resource for students, instructors, and professionals who want to learn more about the fascinating world of microbes. It provides a comprehensive overview of the principles and practices of microbiology, as well as the latest advances and discoveries in this dynamic field.
Chapter 1: Antimicrobial Resistance
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is the ability of microorganisms to withstand the effects of antimicrobial agents, such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, and antiparasitics. AMR is a major threat to public health and global security, as it reduces the effectiveness of treatments for infections and increases the risk of morbidity and mortality. AMR also poses challenges for food safety, agriculture, animal health, and environmental protection.
AMR is driven by several factors, such as the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in human and veterinary medicine, the lack of new antimicrobial development, the spread of resistant microorganisms and genes across different settings and regions, and the inadequate infection prevention and control measures. AMR can affect anyone, anywhere, and at any time. Therefore, a coordinated and multisectoral response is needed to combat AMR and preserve the efficacy of existing antimicrobials.
In this chapter, we will discuss the following topics:
The mechanisms and types of antimicrobial resistance
The epidemiology and surveillance of antimicrobial resistance
The impact and consequences of antimicrobial resistance
The strategies and interventions to prevent and control antimicrobial resistance
The challenges and opportunities for research and innovation on antimicrobial resistance
1.1 The mechanisms and types of antimicrobial resistance
Antimicrobial resistance mechanisms are the ways that microorganisms can resist the action of antimicrobial agents. There are four main types of antimicrobial resistance mechanisms: inactivation, alteration, efflux, and bypass.
Inactivation is when an enzyme produced by the microorganism degrades or modifies the antimicrobial agent, rendering it ineffective. For example, β-lactamases are enzymes that hydrolyze the β-lactam ring of penicillins and cephalosporins, which are antibiotics that inhibit cell wall synthesis. There are many types and variants of β-lactamases, some of which can inactivate a broad range of β-lactam antibiotics[^1^].
Alteration is when the target site of the antimicrobial agent is modified or replaced by a resistant variant, reducing its affinity or binding. For example, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has acquired a gene encoding a modified penicillin-binding protein (PBP2a) that has a low affinity for β-lactam antibiotics[^2^].
Efflux is when a transporter protein pumps the antimicrobial agent out of the cell or into a compartment where it is sequestered or degraded. For example, tetracycline-resistant bacteria have efflux pumps that expel tetracycline from the cytoplasm, where it inhibits protein synthesis by binding to the ribosome[^3^].
Bypass is when an alternative pathway or enzyme is used to circumvent the inhibition of a metabolic process by the antimicrobial agent. For example, sulfonamide-resistant bacteria can synthesize folic acid from exogenous sources or use a resistant variant of dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS), an enzyme that is inhibited by sulfonamides. 061ffe29dd
